[tor-dev] Proposal: Padding Negotiation
Mike Perry
mikeperry at torproject.org
Sat Sep 12 00:34:53 UTC 2015
Here's a proposal describing some padding negotiation cell primitives that
should be useful to defend against website traffic fingerprinting, hidden
service circuit fingerprinting, and probably just about any other traffic
analysis attack under the sun.
The proposal is in my git remote at:
https://gitweb.torproject.org/user/mikeperry/torspec.git/tree/proposals/xxx-padding-negotiation.txt?h=padding_negotiation
==============================
Filename: xxx-padding-negotiation.txt
Title: Padding Negotiation
Authors: Mike Perry
Created: 01 September 2015
Status: Draft
0. Overview
This proposal aims to describe mechanisms for requesting various types
of padding from relays.
These padding primitives are general enough to use to defend against
both website traffic fingerprinting as well as hidden service circuit
setup fingerprinting.
1. Motivation
Tor already supports both link-level padding via (CELL_PADDING cell
types), as well as circuit-level padding (via RELAY_COMMAND_DROP relay
cells).
Unfortunately, there is no way for clients to request padding from
relays, or request that relays not send them padding to conserve
bandwidth. This proposal aims to create a mechanism for clients to do
both of these.
It also establishes consensus parameters to limit the amount of padding
that relays will send, to prevent custom wingnut clients from requesting
too much.
2. Link-level padding
Padding is most useful if it can defend against a malicious or
compromised guard node. However, link-level padding is still useful to
defend against an adversary that can merely observe a Guard node
externally, such as for low-resolution netflow-based attacks (see
Proposal 251[1]).
In that scenario, the primary negotiation mechanism we need is a way for
mobile clients to tell their Guards to stop padding, or to pad less
often. The following Trunnel payloads should cover the needed
parameters:
const CELL_PADDING_COMMAND_STOP = 1;
const CELL_PADDING_COMMAND_START = 2;
/* This command tells the relay to stop sending any periodic
CELL_PADDING cells. */
struct cell_padding_stop {
u8 command IN [CELL_PADDING_COMMAND_STOP];
};
/* This command tells the relay to alter its min and max netflow
timeout range values, and send padding at that rate (resuming
if stopped). */
struct cell_padding_start {
u8 command IN [CELL_PADDING_COMMAND_START];
/* Min must not be lower than the current consensus parameter
nf_ito_low. */
u16 ito_low_ms;
/* Max must not be lower than ito_low_ms */
u16 ito_high_ms;
};
More complicated forms of link-level padding can still be specified
using the primitives in Section 3, by using "leaky pipe" topology to
send the RELAY commands to the Guard node instead of to later nodes in
the circuit.
3. End-to-end circuit padding
For circuit-level padding, we need two types of additional features: the
ability to schedule additional incoming cells at one or more fixed
points in the future, and the ability to schedule a statistical
distribution of arbitrary padding to overlay on top of non-padding
traffic (aka "Adaptive Padding").
In both cases, these messages will be sent from clients to middle nodes
using the "leaky pipe" property of the 'recognized' field of RELAY
cells, allowing padding to originate from middle nodes on a circuit in a
way that is not detectable from the Guard node.
This same mechanism can also be used to request padding from the Guard
node itself, to achieve link-level padding without the additional
overhead requirements on middle nodes.
3.1. Fixed-schedule padding message (RELAY_COMMAND_PADDING_SCHEDULE)
The fixed schedule padding will be encoded in a
RELAY_COMMAND_PADDING_SCHEDULE cell. It specifies a set of up to 80
fixed time points in the future to send cells.
XXX: 80 timers is a lot to allow every client to create. We may want to
have something that checks this structure to ensure it actually
schedules no more than N in practice, until we figure out how to
optimize either libevent or timer scheduling/packet delivery. See also
Section 4.3.
The RELAY_COMMAND_PADDING_SCHEDULE body is specified in Trunnel as
follows:
struct relay_padding_schedule {
/* Number of microseconds before sending cells (cumulative) */
u32 when_send[80];
/* Number of cells to send at time point sum(when_send[0..i]) */
u16 num_cells[80];
/* Adaptivity: If 1, and server-originating cells arrive before the
next when_send time, then decrement the next non-zero when_send
index, so we don't send a padding cell then, too */
u8 adaptive IN [0,1];
};
To allow both high-resolution time values, and the ability to specify
timeout values far in the future, the time values are cumulative. In
other words, sending a cell with when_send = [MAX_INT, MAX_INT, MAX_INT,
0...] and num_cells = [0, 0, 100, 0...] would cause the relay to reply
with 100 cells in 3*MAX_INT microseconds from the receipt of this cell.
3.2. Adaptive Padding message (RELAY_COMMAND_PADDING_ADAPTIVE)
The following message is a generalization of the Adaptive Padding
defense specified in "Timing Attacks and Defenses"[2].
The message encodes either one or two state machines, each of which can
contain one or two histograms ("Burst" and "Gap") governing their
behavior.
The "Burst" histogram specifies the delay probabilities for sending a
padding packet after the arrival of a non-padding data packet.
The "Gap" histogram specifies the delay probabilities for sending
another padding packet after a padding packet was just sent from this
node. This self-triggering property of the "Gap" histogram allows the
construction of multi-packet padding trains using a simple statistical
distribution.
Both "Gap" and "Burst" histograms each have a special "Infinity" bin,
which means "We have decided not to send a packet".
Each histogram is combined with state transition information, which
allows a client to specify the types of incoming packets that cause the
state machine to decide to schedule padding cells (and/or when to cease
scheduling them).
The client also maintains its own local histogram state machine(s), for
reacting to traffic on its end.
Note that our generalization of the Adaptive Padding state machine also
gives clients full control over the state transition events, even
allowing them to specify a single-state Burst-only state machine if
desired. See Sections 3.2.1 and 3.2.2 for details.
The histograms and the associated state machine packet layout is
specified in Trunnel as follows:
/* These constants form a bitfield to specify the types of events
* that can cause transitions between state machine states.
*
* Note that SENT and RECV are relative to this endpoint. For
* relays, SENT means packets destined towards the client and
* RECV means packets destined towards the relay. On the client,
* SENT means packets destined towards the relay, where as RECV
* means packets destined towards the client.
*/
const RELAY_PADDING_TRANSITION_EVENT_NONPADDING_RECV = 1;
const RELAY_PADDING_TRANSITION_EVENT_NONPADDING_SENT = 2;
const RELAY_PADDING_TRANSITION_EVENT_PADDING_SENT = 4;
const RELAY_PADDING_TRANSITION_EVENT_PADDING_RECV = 8;
/* This payload encodes a histogram delay distribution representing
* the probability of sending a single RELAY_DROP cell after a
* given delay in response to a non-padding cell.
*/
struct burst_state {
u8 histogram_len IN [2..51];
u16 histogram[histogram_len];
u32 start_usec;
u16 max_sec;
/* This is a bitfield that specifies which direction and types
* of traffic that cause us to abort our scheduled packet and
* return to waiting for another event from transition_burst_events.
*/
u8 transition_start_events;
/* This is a bitfield that specifies which direction and types
* of traffic that cause us to remain in the burst state: Cancel the
* pending padding packet (if any), and schedule another padding
* packet from our histogram.
*/
u8 transition_reschedule_events;
/* This is a bitfield that specifies which direction and types
* of traffic that cause us to transition to the Gap state. */
u8 transition_gap_events;
/* If true, remove tokens from the histogram upon padding and
* non-padding activity. */
u8 remove_toks IN [0,1];
};
/* This histogram encodes a delay distribution representing the
* probability of sending a single additional padding packet after
* sending a padding packet that originated at this hop.
*/
struct gap_state {
u8 histogram_len IN [2..51];
u16 histogram[histogram_len];
u32 start_usec;
u16 max_sec;
/* This is a bitfield which specifies which direction and types
* of traffic should cause us to transition back to the start
* state (ie: abort scheduling packets completely). */
u8 transition_start_events;
/* This is a bitfield which specifies which direction and types
* of traffic should cause us to transition back to the burst
* state (and schedule a packet from the burst histogram). */
u8 transition_burst_events;
/* This is a bitfield that specifies which direction and types
* of traffic that cause us to remain in the gap state: Cancel the
* pending padding packet (if any), and schedule another padding
* packet from our histogram.
*/
u8 transition_reschedule_events;
/* If true, remove tokens from the histogram upon padding and
non-padding activity. */
u8 remove_toks IN [0,1];
};
struct adaptive_padding_machine {
/* This is a bitfield which specifies which direction and types
* of traffic should cause us to transition to the burst
* state (and schedule a packet from the burst histogram). */
u8 transition_burst_events;
struct burst_state burst;
struct gap_state gap;
};
/* This is the full payload of a RELAY_COMMAND_PADDING_ADAPTIVE
* cell. */
struct relay_command_padding_adaptive {
u8 num_machines IN [1,2];
struct adaptive_padding_machine machines[num_machines];
};
3.2.1. Histogram state machine operation
Each of pair of histograms ("Burst" and "Gap") together form a state
machine whose transitions are governed by incoming traffic and/or
locally generated padding traffic.
Each state machine has a Start state S, a Burst state B, and a Gap state
G.
The state machine starts idle (state S) until it receives a packet of a
type that matches the bitmask in machines[i].transition_burst_events.
This causes it to enter burst mode (state B), in which a delay t is
sampled from the Burst histogram, and a timer is scheduled to count down
until either another matching packet arrives, or t expires. If the
"Infinity" time is sampled from this histogram, the machine returns to
the Start state.
If a packet that matches machines[i].burst.transition_start_events
arrives before t expires, the machine transitions back to the Start
state.
If a packet that matches machines[i].burst.transition_reschedule_events
arrives before t expires, a new delay is sampled and the process is
repeated again, i.e. it remains in burst mode.
Otherwise, if t expires, a padding message is sent to the other end.
If a packet that matches machines[i].burst.transition_gap_events
arrives (or is sent), the machine transitions to the Gap state G.
In state G, the machine samples from the Gap histogram and sends padding
messages when the time it samples expires. If an infinite delay is
sampled while being in state G we jump back to state B.
If a packet arrives that matches gap.transition_start_events, the
machine transitions back to the Start state.
If a packet arrives that matches gap.transition_burst_events, the
machine transitions back to the Burst state.
If a packet arrives that matches
machines[i].gap.transition_reschedule_events, the machine remains in G
but schedules a new padding time from its Gap histogram.
In the event that a malicious or buggy client specifies conflicting
state transition rules with the same bits in multiple transition
bitmasks, the transition rules of a state that specify transition to
earlier states take priority. So burst.transition_start_events
takes priority over burst.transition_reschedule_events, and both of
these take priority over burst.transition_gap_events.
Similarly, gap.transition_start_events takes priority over
gap.transition_burst_events, and gap.transition_burst_events takes
priority over gap.transition_reschedule_events.
In our generalization of Adaptive Padding, either histogram may actually
be self-scheduling (by setting the bit
RELAY_PADDING_TRANSITION_EVENT_PADDING_SENT in their
transition_reschedule_events). This allows the client to create a
single-state machine if desired.
Clients are expected to maintain their own local version of the state
machines, for reacting to their own locally generated traffic, in
addition to sending one or more state machines to the middle relay. The
histograms that the client uses locally will differ from the ones it
sends to the upstream relay.
On the client, the "SENT" direction means packets destined towards the
upstream, where as "RECV" means packets destined towards the client.
However, on the relay, the "SENT" direction means packets destined
towards the client, where as "RECV" means packets destined towards the
relay.
3.2.2. The original Adaptive Padding algorithm
As we have noted, the state machines above represent a generalization of
the original Adaptive Padding algorithm. To implement the original
behavior, the following flags should be set in both the client and
the relay state machines:
num_machines = 1;
machines[0].transition_burst_events =
RELAY_PADDING_TRANSITION_EVENT_NONPADDING_SENT;
machines[0].burst.transition_reschedule_events =
RELAY_PADDING_TRANSITION_EVENT_NONPADDING_SENT;
machines[0].burst.transition_gap_events =
RELAY_PADDING_TRANSITION_EVENT_PADDING_SENT;
machines[0].gap.transition_reschedule_events =
RELAY_PADDING_TRANSITION_EVENT_PADDING_SENT;
machines[0].gap.transition_burst_events =
RELAY_PADDING_TRANSITION_EVENT_NONPADDING_SENT;
The rest of the transition fields would be 0.
Adding additional transition flags will either increase or decrease the
amount of padding sent, depending on their placement.
The second machine slot is provided in the event that it proves useful
to have separate state machines reacting to both sent and received
traffic.
3.2.3. Histogram decoding/representation
Each of the histograms' fields represent a probability distribution that
is expanded into bins representing time periods a[i]..b[i] as follows:
start_usec,max_sec,histogram_len initialized from appropriate histogram
body.
n = histogram_len-1
INFINITY_BIN = n
a[0] = start_usec;
b[0] = start_usec + max_sec*USEC_PER_SEC/2^(n);
for(i=1; i < n; i++) {
a[i] = start_usec + max_sec*USEC_PER_SEC/2^(n-i)
b[i] = start_usec + max_sec*USEC_PER_SEC/2^(n-i-1)
}
To sample the delay time to send a padding packet, perform the
following:
i = 0;
curr_weight = histogram[0];
tot_weight = sum(histogram);
bin_choice = crypto_rand_int(tot_weight);
while (curr_weight < bin_choice) {
curr_weight += histogram[i];
i++;
}
if (i == INFINITY_BIN)
return; // Don't send a padding packet
// Sample uniformly between a[i] and b[i]
send_padding_packet_at = a[i] + crypto_rand_int(b[i] - a[i]);
In this way, the bin widths are exponentially increasing in width, where
the width is set at max_sec/2^(n-i) seconds. This exponentially
increasing bin width allows the histograms to most accurately represent
small interpacket delay (where accuracy is needed), and devote less
accuracy to larger timescales (where accuracy is not as important).
3.2.4. Token removal and refill
If the remove_tok field is set to true for a given state's histogram,
then whenever a padding packet is sent, the corresponding histogram
bin's token count is decremented by one.
If a packet matching the current state's transition_reschedule_events
bitmask arrives from the server before the chosen padding timer expires,
then a token is removed from the nearest non-empty bin corresponding to
the delay since the last packet was sent, and the padding packet timer
is re-sampled from the histogram.
If the entire histogram becomes empty, it is then refilled to the
original values.
3.2.5. Constructing the histograms
Care must be taken when constructing the histograms themselves, since
their non-uniform widths means that the actual underlying probability
distribution needs to be both normalized for total number of tokens, as
well as the non-uniform histogram bin widths.
Care should also be taken with interaction with the token removal rules
from Section 3.2.4. Obviously using a large number of tokens will cause
token removal to have much less of an impact upon the adaptive nature of
the padding in the face of existing traffic.
Actual optimal histogram and state transition construction for different
traffic types is expected to be a topic for further research.
Intuitively, the burst state is used to detect when the line is idle
(and should therefore have few or no tokens in low histogram bins). The
lack of tokens in the low histogram bins causes the system to remain in
the burst state until the actual application traffic either slows,
stalls, or has a gap.
The gap state is used to fill in otherwise idle periods with artificial
payloads from the server (and should have many tokens in low bins, and
possibly some also at higher bins).
It should be noted that due to our generalization of these states and
their transition possibilities, more complicated interactions are also
possible.
4. Security considerations and mitigations
The risks from this proposal are primarily DoS/resource exhaustion, and
side channels.
4.1. Rate limiting
Fully client-requested padding introduces a vector for resource
amplification attacks and general network overload due to
overly-aggressive client implementations requesting too much padding.
Current research indicates that this form of statistical padding should
be effective at overhead rates of 50-60%. This suggests that clients
that use more padding than this are likely to be overly aggressive in
their behavior.
We recommend that three consensus parameters be used in the event that
the network is being overloaded from padding to such a degree that
padding requests should be ignored:
* CircuitPaddingMaxRatio
- The maximum ratio of padding traffic to non-padding traffic
(expressed as a percent) to allow on a circuit before ceasing
to pad. Ex: 75 means 75 padding packets for every 100 non-padding
packets.
- Default: 100
* CircuitPaddingLimitCount
- The number of padding cells that must be transmitted before the
ratio limit is applied.
- Default: 500
* CircuitPaddingLimitTime
- The time period in seconds over which to count padding cells for
application of the ratio limit.
- Default: 60
XXX: Should we cap padding at these rates, or fully disable it once
they're crossed?
Proposal 251 introduced extra-info accounting at relays to enable us to
measure the total overhead of both link and circuit-level padding at
various relays.
4.2. Malicious state machines
The state machine capabilities of RELAY_COMMAND_PADDING_ADAPTIVE are
very flexible, and as a result may specify conflicting or
non-deterministic state transitions.
We believe that the rules in Section 3.2.1 for prioritizing transitions
towards lower states remove any possibility of non-deterministic
transitions.
However, because of self-triggering property that allows the state
machines to schedule more padding packets after sending their own
locally generated padding packets, care must be taken with the
interaction with the rate limiting rules in Section 4.1. If the limits
in section 4.1 are exceeded, the state machines should stop, rather than
continually poll themselves trying to transmit packets and being blocked
by the rate limiter at another layer.
4.3. Libevent timer exhaustion
As mentioned in section 3.1, scheduled padding may create an excessive
number of libevent timers. Care should be taken in the implementation to
devise a way to prevent clients from sending padding requests
specifically designed to impact the ability of relays to function by
causing too many timers to be scheduled at once.
XXX: Can we suggest any specifics here? I can imagine a few ways of
lazily scheduling timers only when they are close to their expiry time,
and other ways of minimizing the number of pending timer callbacks at a
given time, but I am not sure which would be best for libevent.
4.4. Side channels
In order to prevent relays from introducing side channels by requesting
padding from clients, all of these commands should only be valid in the
outgoing (from the client/OP) direction.
Clients should perform accounting on the amount of padding that they
receive, and if it exceeds the amount that they have requested, they
alert the user of a potentially misbehaving node, and/or close the
circuit.
Similarly, if RELAY_DROP cells arrive from the last hop of a circuit,
rather than from the expected interior node, clients should alert the
user of the possibility of that circuit endpoint introducing a
side-channel attack, and/or close the circuit.
-------------------
1. https://gitweb.torproject.org/torspec.git/tree/proposals/251-netflow-padding.txt
2. http://freehaven.net/anonbib/cache/ShWa-Timing06.pdf
--
Mike Perry
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